The Sensors, Energy, and Automation Lab (SEAL) aims to gamify undergraduate research by instituting a leaderboard, awarding points for tasks, assigning ranks for accomplishments and published papers, and framing research directions as Quests. Individuals receive a character sheet with a health bar, while groups compete against one another in Racetrack- a software for team challenges. Gamification in educational settings is well-studied: gamifying learning can boost students’ motivation, retention, and challenge appraisal. However, research indicates that the efficacy of gamification varies dramatically, particularly personality traits like extraversion, which correlate more positively with success in software with leaderboards. Significant gaps exist in gamification literature; existing research primarily studies gamification in classrooms, not workplaces or research environments. Further, the studies fail to incorporate modern approaches to psychology. The socio-psychological model suggests personalities and behaviors differ depending on the environment, meaning people may exhibit different personality traits in gamified environments. Moreover, gamer motivation, a personality test tailored to predicting player personality with strong correlations to the Big Five (psychological scale for key personality traits), has yet to be tested in gamification studies. By accounting for contemporary psychological theory, SEAL aims to rigorously test the hypothesis that gamification is an effective structure in lab organizations through multi-year longitudinal study on a scale never seen in gamification literature. SEAL’s large cohort and gamified structure offer a perfect platform to analyze the role of demographic and personality type in gamification outcomes. Our preliminary results explored collected qualitative and quantitative data on demographics, gamer motivation personality, and perceptions of the SEAL system by anonymously surveying 81 associates. Our longitudinal study contributes to the growing literature on gamification; a solution potentially improving productivity in research ecosystems.

Understanding the ecology of vegetation systems in Earth’s past in response to past warming events helps contextualize how they might respond to current climate events. Ecological succession is an ecosystem dynamic in which plant species with different life strategies replace each other as plants colonize a disturbed habitat. Reconstructing which successional stage a fossil plant represents is an important step in reconstructing this process in the past. However, fossil plants preserve a limited number of traits. Leaf vein density (LVD) is a trait that relates to maximum photosynthetic rates and can be measured from fossil leaves, but there is limited empirical evidence for how it varies across succession in temperate deciduous forests. To address this knowledge gap, our study measures LVD of modern plant communities across a successional gradient in western North Carolina. We hypothesize that plants in younger forests have greater access to sunlight due to a less established canopy and will therefore have higher LVD to support a higher photosynthetic rate. As succession progresses and the canopy closes, we hypothesize that LVD will decrease with reduced light availability. Samples were taken from five sites in western North Carolina that vary in how long forest re-growth occurred following clear-cut timber harvesting, 4, 21, 44, 94, and roughly 200 years. At each site, leaves were collected and sampled at a community scale and were chemically treated to create images that highlight the veins. We then used ImageJ to measure LVD. The community mean and variance of LVD across succession will be analyzed, using both unweighted and weighted approaches, to test our proposed hypothesis of decreasing LVD through succession. Preliminary results suggest a potential LVD decrease as hypothesized but driven more by understory species rather than dominant tree species. Future work will refine interpretations and consider implications for the fossil record.

The Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO) (17-14 Ma) represents the most recent significant global warming event and provides valuable insights into the future of our planet with higher CO2 levels and warmer temperatures. The Mascall Formation in central Oregon contains a fossil plant assemblage that reflects the vegetation present during the height of the MCO. Despite over 50 years of research in this formation, there is still much to learn about the ancient plant community. For instance, a fossil specimen, consisting of several leaves, that was collected recently exhibits similar trait to bamboo, which represents a new fossil finding in this formation. This project seeks to confidently assign this specimen to the bamboo subfamily Bambusoideae. By analyzing morphological and vein architectural features of the leaves using various microscopic techniques and digital photography. In addition to studying the specimen itself we explore the fossil plant silica bodies (phytoliths) also present in the surrounding substrate to provide independent evidence that bamboo was present in the region. The phytoliths can then be compared to those of current Native American bamboo to find evidence for relatedness or if it was part of some other lineage of bamboo, whether extinct or still present in South America or Eastern Asia. If the specimen turns out to be bamboo, it would have implications for the climate and ecology of eastern Oregon during the MCO as bamboo was not assumed to have previously been present.  

Syphilis, caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, remains a major global public health concern despite the availability of curative treatment. Cases in the U.S. have increased by nearly 80% since 2018, and congenital cases have skyrocketed by 937% since 2014. Currently, a variety of treponemal and non-treponemal tests exist for syphilis diagnostics. Still, they can be limited by high costs, false positive and negative results, and an inability to distinguish between current and prior infection, depending on the test. Further, the fragility and low protein content of T. pallidum’s outer membrane, coupled with its nature as an obligate pathogen, exacerbates the difficulty of conventional approaches to proteome characterization. Current assays are ultimately incapable of characterizing a high-resolution immune response to T. pallidum in humans. Here, we introduce a phage display and immunoprecipitation sequencing (PhIP-Seq) platform capable of identifying antibody epitopes across the entire T. pallidum proteome. This platform allows for the profiling of antibodies that bind to linear B-cell epitopes. This can further the current understanding of antigenic proteins within T. pallidum, their ability to elicit an immune response in humans, and reveal antigens with the potential as a diagnostic. Utilizing 40 single-draw serum samples from syphilis-infected patients in Peru and Seattle, we characterize how antibody responses differ based on syphilis stage, HIV status, and strain of the infection, and have identified four proteins - TP0136, TP0969, tprK, and arp - as being highly enriched across all patients.

Superatoms are (often inorganic) clusters of several to several hundred atoms in size, that mimic the chemistry of elemental atoms by exhibiting a high degree of valence electron delocalization, effectively creating a unified valence shell over the entire superatom. Our lab works with M₃(solv)_xCo₆Se₈L₆ (M = Cr, Mn, Co, Zn; solv = thf, py; L = PPh₂NTol)  clusters, leveraging the molecular nature of the Co₆Se₈ core to attach three metal “edge sites” held in place by phosphine ligands, arranged such that they serve as an interface between the exterior chemical environment and the inner superatomic core. By swapping the edge metal, we are able to modify properties of the overall metalated cluster, imparting a degree of chemical and electronic tuneability. While investigations into these compounds have shed light on their electronic structure and reactivity, applying these properties in a practical sense has been an elusive and ongoing area of study. In 2021, however, the Nuckolls lab demonstrated a mixture of Co₆Se₈(PEt₃)₆, Cr₆Te₈(PEt₃)₆, and C₆₀ that formed an isotropic crystal structure capable of up to 100-fold increased conductivity compared to crystals of Cr₆Te₈(PEt₃)₆ or Co₆Se₈(PEt₃)₆ mixed with C₆₀ alone. In this work, I am investigating the conductivity of mixtures of various M₃(solv)_xCo₆Se₈L₆ clusters via a 2-probe method. In previous work, our lab has demonstrated the occurrence of charge transfer in the solution phase between clusters metalated with Co and Cu; building off of this, I intend to determine whether such a phenomenon can be observed in the solid state, and to a degree of reversibility that facilitates improved conductivity through the mixture. The observation or lack thereof of such behavior could hold implications for the applicability of metalated clusters in future semiconductor or materials technologies.

The Pacific Northwest (PNW) saw an unprecedented heatwave between June 25 to July 3 of 2021, with temperatures reaching up to 15℃ above the climatological mean. Previous studies have focused on this event’s impacts on plants in Western Washington and Oregon through direct observations, or have focused on the economic implications from poor crop turnout. We used remote sensing data to take a holistic approach and examined how all plants throughout the PNW fared during and after this historical heatwave. We found that solar induced fluorescence (SIF) and near-Infrared reflectance of vegetation (NIRv), two remotely sensed vegetation health markers, had regionally dependent plant responses to the extreme heat. In particular, anomalously high SIF regions coincided with anomalously high photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) regions due to low cloud cover. As SIF has been used as a proxy for gross primary productivity (GPP), our findings begs the question: was the elevated SIF during the heatwave indicative of higher GPP, or was the SIF response an artifact of the higher radiation? Our study aims to further our understanding of how extreme events impact plant health, which is increasingly important as heatwaves become more intense and frequent in the future.

The opioid crisis is an escalating public health emergency, with fentanyl posing major challenges due to its potency and addictive properties. Current treatments address withdrawal but fail to target persistent cravings and relapse triggers. Under Dr. Susan Ferguson and Dr. Alex Whitebirch, I investigate the neural mechanisms underlying fentanyl addiction using rodent models. This research focuses on dopamine (DA) dynamics within the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a key brain region implicated in addiction. Our approach employs the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm, a behavioral test that measures a rodent's preference for a drug-paired environment. DA activity in the PFC is monitored in real-time during CPP via fiber photometry of the GRABDA2m fluorescent DA sensor, expressed in glutamatergic neurons through an intersectional virus strategy. We aim to determine whether the development of fentanyl CPP is accompanied by altered DA signaling in the PFC. DA input to the PFC originates from neurons in the VTA, while pyramidal tract (PT) neurons in the PFC project to the VTA and are implicated in suppressing drug-seeking behaviors. To investigate how PT neurons regulate DA signaling, we use Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs) to selectively inhibit them. Investigating the behavioral and neurochemical consequences of PT inhibition will provide insight into whether this pathway enhances or suppresses dopamine release. We hypothesize that our conditioning paradigm will lead to enhanced PFC DA signals associated with entry into a fentanyl-paired environment, and that PT neuron inhibition will further enhance DA signals and fentanyl-associated place preference. My role in this research includes surgical procedures, photometry and chemogenetic experiments, data analysis, and histological processing. By advancing our understanding of fentanyl’s impact on dopamine pathways and the role of the PFC, this project aims to inform the development of more effective therapeutic interventions for opioid use disorder and relapse prevention.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is an important greenhouse gas that depletes stratospheric ozone and is 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide (CO₂) over 100 years. Emissions have increased by 40% since 1980, and N₂O has been accumulating in the atmosphere at an unprecedented rate due to its long lifetime. The rapid rise of N₂O emissions primarily come from soil microbes that respond to the increased usage of agricultural fertilizers which help supply global food demand. Other notable sources include combustion, wastewater treatment, and industrial processes such as nitric acid production. Despite the importance of N₂O, atmospheric observations have limited spatial coverage. Remote sensing presents an attractive solution to dramatically increase spatial sampling. Here we assess the feasibility of using remote sensing to measure N₂O concentrations from sub-orbital platforms. Sub-orbital remote sensing platforms provide a testbed to determine the future viability of space-borne measurements. Our work uses an airborne instrument: the Airborne Visible InfraRed Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS). AVIRIS is a full spectral range airborne imaging spectrometer that measures the radiance of the Earth’s atmosphere from 380 - 2510 nm wavelengths. We hypothesize that band ratios from AVIRIS can be used to detect N₂O plumes. We begin by selecting the highest emitting point-source facilities in cloud-free flight tracks. Preliminary plumes will be verified by shape and direction according to meteorological data and consistency with facility layouts. We first test this methodology on CO₂, as previous studies have demonstrated successful detections with AVIRIS. CO₂ will serve as a proof of concept before applying our method to N₂O, which is more challenging to detect due to its lower atmospheric abundance and weaker spectral signature. 

The project aims to design a multi-modal sensor network with VLF antennas will be implemented to model the ionospheric D-region in real-time. In consideration of not having ground truth data, such a network will address the ill-posed problem of inverting with robust regularization techniques. High-data-rate acquisition, high-data-rate processing, and dynamically adaptable auto-tuning will be included in our design. Drawing on experience with the NeSSI, modularity and a digital bus for centrally processed, real-time processing will be part of a standardized, modular sensor network that will be designed. The D-region, an upper atmospheric dusty plasma, controls radio wave propagation via fluctuations in charge. Numerical simulations in our work simulate such occurrences as HF to UHF range radar echoes, validated through experiments in radar labs. Ionospheric instabilities in occurrences such as SAPS events generated through space weather result in GPS and Starlink communications outages. 3D electrostatic fluid and gyrokinetic equations are included in our model, which is significant for describing such instabilities. Real-time observation, predictive maintenance, and reliability in communications networks are enhanced through such studies.

Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) is a cancer caused by Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). While most KS tumor cells are latently infected, where KSHV is inactive, all current treatments for herpesviruses target lytic infection. The Lagunoff lab has shown that latent KSHV infection, similarly to cancer cells, induces the Warburg effect, in which glycolysis is used as an energy source rather than oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), an enzyme that catalyzes the last step of glycolysis, increases cell death specifically in latently infected cells. This indicated that the KSHV-induced upregulation of glycolysis was necessary for the survival of these cells; however, it is unknown how KSHV induces this requirement. The goal of my proposal is to determine the viral mechanism for the induction of the Warburg effect in latently infected cells. During latent infection, only the KSHV-latency-associated-region (KLAR) of the viral genome is expressed. KLAR encodes 4 genes: vFLIP, vCyc, LANA, the kaposins, and a cluster of 12 microRNAs. I hypothesized that one of the genes or miRNAs is necessary and/or sufficient to induce the requirement for glycolysis in latently infected cells. To test for necessity, I am using KSHV recombinant viruses that have a deletion in vFLIP, vCyc, the kaposins, or the entire miRNA locus to infect endothelial cells. To test sufficiency, our lab has created lentiviral vectors that contain one of the KLAR genes or the miRNA locus to overexpress these genes in endothelial cells. I anticipate that vCyc and/or the miRNA locus might exhibit necessity/sufficiency, since prior studies have identified these as important for the regulation of other metabolic pathways. Understanding KSHV’s alteration of specific metabolic pathways in latently infected endothelial cells provides novel therapeutic targets for the inhibition of latent KSHV infection and ultimately KS tumors.

The Type 4 pilus (T4P) in Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and other bacterial species, is a protein system responsible for host-cell adhesion of the pathogen. Insight into the structure of this system necessary for N. gonorrhoeae pathogenesis can aid the development of novel therapeutic avenues. PilC, the adhesin located at the tip of the T4P, is essential for the initiation of pilus assembly, DNA transformation, and host-cell adhesion. It is believed to interact with a complex of minor pilin proteins to initiate pilus assembly, but the mechanisms of this process are unclear. My project aims to develop an amber-codon suppression system to investigate the function of PilC and its interactions with minor pilins and host cells. Based on computational modeling, the last 12 amino acids of PilC form a beta-strand that binds to the minor pilin PilK to initiate piliation. I designed a mutated version of the PilC gene by inserting an amber stop codon (sequence “TAG”) before the genetic code for this beta-strand. When expressed in gonorrhoeae, the mutated gene leads to a loss of T4P. Next, I aim to genetically modify an existing tRNA to read an amber stop codon. I hypothesize that such a tRNA, known as an “amber suppressor,” when expressed in the non-piliated cell, should rescue the defect in PilC by reading the amber stop codon, thus enabling translation of the complete, functional protein. The resulting cell should change from non-piliated to piliated, confirming that the final beta-strand of PilC is essential for T4P formation. Once I develop a functional amber-suppressor system in N. gonorrhoeae, I intend to study other domains of PilC and the minor pilins essential to T4P biogenesis, by extending the system to enable site-specific incorporation of non-canonical amino acids with useful properties.

Elevated levels of metals such as copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn) are often observed in liver failure patients, individuals with Wilson’s Disease, and those with hypermanganesemia with dystonia or workplace exposure. The binding of Cu and Mn to proteins such as albumin and ceruloplasmin poses difficulties for their removal through dialysis. The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of adding albumin in dialysis in removing these toxic metals. We explored different blood and dialysis flow rates and dialysate albumin concentrations to find optimal conditions for Cu/Mn removal. We also explored cheaper Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved alternatives to albumin that may be effective at removing Cu/Mn. Additionally, due to Human Serum Albumin’s (HSA) limited supply and blood bank pricing, albumin from other mammal species were used to make treatments feasible. In this study we used albumin from several species and three low-cost albumin alternatives to remove Cu/Mn in a closed-loop dialysis process. We digested the biological samples with Nitric Acid and Hydrogen Peroxide on a hotplate and analyzed the atomic compositions of the biological samples using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). We measured the percent reduction of each toxic metal normalized by albumin concentration and found that 20 mL/min and 150 mL/min of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) dialysate resulted in a significant percent reduction compared to the negative control. For albumin alternatives, Dextran Sulphate showed promise by notably increasing Cu percent reduction compared to the negative control. Despite the encouraging data, a larger sample size is needed to make a conclusive statement. Although Mn had little variance with different dialysate flow rates or albumin, charcoal columns demonstrated an effective near 100% reduction at both 20 mL/min and 120 mL/min of dialysate flow rate. Further replication studies are needed.

Adolescents and young adults often experience barriers to accessing inclusive, high-quality, and youth-friendly healthcare. Despite growing attention to these disparities, few standardized tools exist to assess or encourage youth-friendly practices across healthcare settings. This project, conducted under the Adolescent Health Team at the Washington State Department of Health, asks: What criteria define a youth-friendly healthcare environment, and how can these be translated into a sustainable certification model? To answer this, we employed a mixed-methods approach. We conducted a landscape review of existing youth-focused health frameworks, analyzed qualitative feedback from community partners and youth advisory groups, and iteratively developed criteria through stakeholder engagement. Branding materials and an informational flyer were designed to enhance accessibility and understanding of the certification. A draft patient satisfaction survey was also created to capture ongoing youth experiences in certified settings. Preliminary findings highlight key themes in youth feedback, such as the importance of inclusive language, provider relatability, and confidentiality and privacy in care settings. These themes directly shaped the final set of certification criteria and informed outreach materials. This work contributes to the field by piloting a novel framework for Youth-Friendly Certification in Washington State. Findings underscore the value of youth-informed design in public health initiatives and provide a replicable model for other regions seeking to improve healthcare access and equity for young people.

Mutations in the RAS gene family are common in various cancers and are estimated to occur in approximately 19% of cancer patients. We utilize the model organism C. elegans to study RAS genes because it sends signals in the worms the same way it does in humans. C. elegans only have one RAS family gene, encoded by let-60, making it simpler to study than the three in humans. The let-60 G13E mutation is a gain of function (gf) mutation also found in cancer patients and is characterized by a glycine to glutamic acid amino acid mutation at residue 13. The mutation is phenotypically marked by neoplasias - pathologically abnormal growths of tissue, effectively constituting tumors. Despite genetic uniformity of C. elegans in the controlled laboratory environment, not all let-60 gf worms develop neoplasias. Preliminary findings show that the penetrance of neoplasias is approximately 81% in the MT2124 strain, which developed the let-60 gf mutation via mutagenesis, and 93% in the ARM219 strain, which developed the mutation via CRISPR technology. Previous reports have identified chaperones as affecting RAS activity, My study aims to identify the effects of heat shock proteins hsp-17/CRYAB  and hsp-70/HSPA5 in C. elegans on the penetrance of neoplasias driven by the let-60 gf worms. Neoplasias shorten lifespan, so I measured their effects on survival in worms with and without the let-60 gf mutation, sorting them by tumor count. I hypothesized that the genetic backgrounds with a lower penetrance and expressivity of let-60 gf will have fewer tumors on average and observe a longer lifespan compared to strains with a higher penetrance of the mutation. Understanding the role of heat shock proteins in neoplasia penetrance could provide insights into potential therapeutic targets for RAS-related cancers.

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a composite material consisting of carbon fiber and cured resin layers. Its usage is especially prominent in Washington state, whose aerospace sector generates over 70 billion dollars in revenue each year and supports more than 250,000 jobs. Despite its relatively high material value of more than $40 per pound, around two million pounds of CFRP waste are sent to landfills in Washington each year. Assessments show that the costs of this waste and its disposal are a significant financial expense for manufacturers, potentially exceeding hundreds of thousands of dollars. Additionally, the complex and high-temperature manufacturing process required to produce CFRP is extremely energy intensive and generates high levels of greenhouse gas emissions. My research seeks to identify the current state of CFRP recycling in the Washington aerospace sector and examine its potential to address these industry-wide economic and environmental concerns. Through conducting market analysis of aerospace manufacturers in Washington, I will collect data on current levels of CFRP recycling and understand to what extent these recycling processes are effective in reducing environmental impact and improving business profitability. I aim to identify the main barriers that manufacturers face when attempting to implement recycling processes, in order to establish what developments would be necessary to expand the adoption of CFRP recycling across the industry. I anticipate that by identifying these developments and the processes required to achieve them, there will be opportunities for increased collaboration between aerospace manufacturers and CFRP recyclers. With Earth’s resources rapidly depleting and demand for CFRP steadily rising, CFRP recycling is a critical solution that will ensure that aerospace manufacturing can be sustainable, circular and economically feasible.

Enteric neurons regulate intestinal immunity, motility, and other functions. However, they are not in direct contact with the intestinal lumen. This creates the question of how they can sense microbes in the intestine. Intestinal epithelial cells are in direct contact with the lumen and have also been described to regulate immune responses to pathogens. We hypothesize that enteric neurons that regulate intestinal immunity are activated by intestinal epithelial cells. To test this hypothesis, my goal was to identify if there are physical interactions between specialized types of intestinal epithelial cells and enteric neurons. To achieve this, I utilized whole-mount preparations of the intestine of mice, imaged by 2-photon microscopy, where sensory epithelial cells and enteric neurons were labeled by immunofluorescence. I further applied advanced computational analysis of the obtained 3D images of the intestine to quantify cellular proximity. By integrating these approaches and performing precise spatial mapping and statistical evaluation, I identified interaction patterns between specialized sensory epithelial cells and enteric neurons. This research provides the spatial fundaments of interactions between intestinal epithelial cells and enteric neurons, which provides the basis for neuronal sensing of luminal signals and control of intestinal immunity, with broader implications for gut health.

Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-bound organelles and rely on precise vesicle trafficking to transport cargo between them and maintain organelle function and identity. Functional defects in Adaptor Protein complex 3 (AP-3) disrupt vesicle trafficking, leading to disorders such as albinism, seizures, and neutropenia. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, AP-3 carries cargo from the late Golgi to the lysosomal vacuole, but how it dissociates from the carrier vesicle is not clear. Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) regulates AP-3 recruitment and shedding, relying on GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) for proper function. AGE2, an ARF1 GAP, functions redundantly with GCS1 to regulate ARF1 (Schoppe, 2020), thus AP-3 trafficking. This study aims to identify the interaction site between AP-3 and AGE2 to better understand AP-3 shedding molecularly. Using AlphaFold3, the Merz lab predicted a conserved alpha-helix region in the AP-3 subunit Apl5 C-terminal domain (CTD) as a potential interaction site. To test this hypothesis, I introduced substitution mutations in Apl5 CTD and conducted spinning disc confocal microscope experiments to assess AP-3 pathway defects with a GNSI reporter, which enables to quantify AP-3 function via fluorescence distribution. My results show no statistically significant difference in trafficking defects between wild-type and mutant strains, suggesting that the predicted site is either not a binding site, or not necessary for AP-3 and AGE2 function. Although this study yielded a negative result, it refines our understanding of AP-3 shedding. Future studies will explore alternative regions on Apl5 subunit of AP-3 to identify the true interaction site and uncover the molecular mechanism of AP-3 shedding.

Sulfate aerosols cause pollution and affect climate by influencing cloud properties and incoming solar radiation. Emissions and abundances of sulfur-containing aerosols are one of the largest sources of uncertainties in global climate modeling. The largest biogenic and most uncertain emission source of sulfur aerosols is from phytoplankton in the form of dimethyl sulfide (DMS). In the atmosphere, DMS is oxidized to methanesulfonic acid (MSA) and other compounds that can form sulfate. Historical emissions of DMS are studied by measuring MSA concentrations in ice cores as a proxy for DMS oxidation. Declining levels of MSA have been found in ice core records, implying that production of DMS has also been decreasing; however, anthropogenically driven changes in atmospheric chemistry have altered the ratio of MSA to sulfate produced from DMS over time. To better understand DMS oxidation mechanisms and its relationship to the production of MSA and sulfate aerosols, we need more recent ice core records of MSA and sulfur isotopes of sulfate (δ³⁴S(SO₄^2–)) at higher temporal resolution. To measure δ³⁴S(SO₄^2–) at seasonal resolution in an ice core, rather than an annual resolution, the measurement size is smaller than previously measured by an order of magnitude, at about 1 µg S per sample. We will develop a new method to isolate samples containing less than 1 µg of sulfur from an ice core sample by separating SO₄^2– from other major ions in the sample using an ion chromatograph. We will quantify the isotopic ratio of sulfur in our samples by using an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. Quantifying sulfur isotopes at this resolution will provide information about the seasonality and change in phytoplankton sulfate production.