Pacific salmon are both an ecological and cultural keystone species, essential to Pacific Northwest ecosystems, Indigenous Peoples, and the economy. Road salts (primarily NaCl), an increasingly common toxic constituent of stormwater runoff, adversely affect salmonids in vulnerable early life stages and mobilize heavy metals found in roadside soils. Dissolved copper (Cu), a ubiquitous nonpoint source pollutant, has been correlated with the impairment of olfactory systems in salmon; the negative effects of Cu decrease pre-smolt survival rates when compounded with NaCl. Our study investigates the concentrations of Cu and Cl^- in urban and rural watersheds home to Pacific salmon. We collected water samples from the Cedar River watershed and the Thornton Creek watershed in the greater Seattle area following storm events. Ion chromatography (IC) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis were performed on our samples to determine the concentration of Cl^- and dissolved Cu, respectively. Our results show levels of Cl^- that have been shown to increase the mortality rate of Atlantic salmon alevin, whereas concentrations of Cu are undetectable in Cedar River and at very low levels in Thornton Creek. Annual returns of salmon runs across the Pacific Northwest are in rapid decline and although the cause is neither singular nor isolated, water quality and habitat degradation are leading concerns. Our results provide insight into how road salts and metal-containing road dust contaminate streams and rivers, altering water quality conditions for salmonids from fertilization to swim-up. We relate our findings to current ecological management practices and research examining the effect of salinization and copper toxicity on salmonids in critical early life stages.

The existential risk of being unable to control a super-intelligent agent is called the Control Problem. Philosophers argue that an intelligence explosion and the creation of a singularity are inevitable, likening it to a ticking bomb. This fear is also present within the media, with rogue robots and singularities being frequent tropes for science fiction. However, the catastrophizing of sentient computers is not new. When first invented, academics and citizens speculated the computer was a precursor to supernatural thinking machines. Even in the mid-20th century, scientists believed sentient computers were right around the corner. This belief led to widespread computer phobia- the general public was afraid of what they thought were sentient gadgets and their implications. As familiarity with computers grew, along with a redefinition of what qualifies as human intelligence, this fear dwindled, and the public viewed computers as mere tools. Once again, due to the innovation of neural networks, we are experiencing a resurgence of phobia, reviving the belief that computers are supernatural thinking machines. This literature review will compare recent and historical philosophical arguments to current psychology and computer science. I expect to find similarities between the 1950s and present phobia and logical dissonance between the application of computer science and philosophical arguments. By confronting a potentially baseless fear, we can correct and alleviate the issues caused by irrationality and identify policies separate from sentience but still necessary to safeguard against non-sentient AI.