Neutrinos (and their antimatter counterparts, antineutrinos) are some of the most mysterious particles in physics. Their masses are unknown; it is not even known which type is heaviest. Learning about neutrino mass might give clues about physics beyond the Standard Model. The Project 8 experiment is developing a new way to study neutrino mass called Cyclotron Radiation Emission Spectroscopy (CRES). Measuring the energy spectrum of the electrons emitted in nuclear beta decay can put an upper limit on the neutrino mass. In CRES, the electron’s energy is measured by observing the cyclotron radiation emitted by the electron as it accelerates in a magnetic field; because of a special relativistic effect, this cyclotron frequency depends on the electron’s kinetic energy. A radiofrequency detection system collects, measures, and digitizes information about the cyclotron radiation, and a Project 8 analysis software package called Katydid processes the data to distinguish electron signals from noise and extract the measured cyclotron frequencies. However, many electron signals are comparable in power to noise, which can lead to missed signals and errors in frequency reconstruction. This work aims to quantify the systematic effects of variations in signal properties on measured cyclotron frequencies. We use a Project 8 software package called Locust to create simulated electron signals and noise. We vary the signal-to noise ratio (SNR), and “slope,” which here is change in cyclotron frequency over time, of the simulated signals. We then measure how these variations affect Katydid’s efficiency in finding signals and its accuracy in determining their frequency. These calibrations will make it possible to quantify uncertainties in Project 8’s ongoing experimental observation of the spectrum of electrons emitted in the beta decay of tritium.

For years, scientists have been baffled by the imbalance between matter and antimatter in the universe. The properties of the neutrino, a subatomic chargeless particle, may ultimately help us explain this anomaly. Double beta decay takes place in an atomic nucleus, and it occurs when two neutrons spontaneously transform into two protons, emitting two electrons and two antineutrinos in the process. However, if the neutrino is its own antiparticle, the antineutrinos could annihilate each other, so that the two electrons are emitted with no balancing emission of antimatter. This is a postulated process known as “neutrinoless double beta decay.” The MAJORANA Demonstrator, a collection of germanium detectors, allows us to search for this creation of matter in a laboratory setting. However, there are naturally occurring background processes, such as gamma rays, which closely resemble that of the creation of matter. In order to accurately distinguish one process from the other, we must understand them extremely well. The Demonstrator relies heavily on the use of simulation software, called Geant4, in order to predict the occurrence of gamma ray backgrounds. Geant4 previously generated the gamma rays’ directions isotropically, but many sequences of gamma emission are emitted in correlated directions. We contributed new code that uses the computation of associated Legendre polynomials to correctly generate the gamma emission directions. This code used a recursive algorithm that was too slow for general use. A speedup was attempted using a cache, meaning it stored computations to avoid repetition. However, the cache was implemented inefficiently and incorrectly. Improved caching should speed up calculations. If it is insufficient, we will unwrap the recursive algorithm into a generative for-loop. For gamma emissions with extremely large angular momenta, the code may still be too slow. In that case, we will explore asymptotic formulae to speed up computations even further.

The idea of energy, matter, and motion has perplexed many philosophers and physicists from antiquity to modern physics, from Plato to Einstein. New and developing physical theories raise different interpretations of energy and matter but no complete theory of everything exists at present. However, there is a law we can almost take for granted - the Law of Conservation of Energy, it simply states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed although it can be transformed from one form to another. With an up-to-date history of the first law of thermodynamics, physicists in the field can have a sense of what has been done and what not. A complete overview of the rudimentary law would also provide a continuous timeline in which one can identify flaws in current theories. After establishing the foundational theory and history of conservation of energy, this literature review aims to provide a comparative study between the concept of mass and energy in two of the most profound physical theories - Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity. Subtle implication of numerous laws of thermodynamics and mass-energy equivalence like Dark Energy, Dark Matter, Higgs Mechanism and Blackhole Thermodynamics is studied in an introductory manner for potential history and correlate direct and indirect links to energy conservation.

Systematic measurements of the resistivity, susceptibility, and quantum oscillations are presented for single-crystal samples of the electron/hole-doped RAgSb₂ (R=Gd,Y,La). Doping the parent compound LaAgSb₂ with Gd and Y explores the effect of hole doping and electron doping the crystal. La_1−xGd_xAgSb₂ exhibits anti-ferromagnetic ordering around 14K, while La_1−xY_xAgSb₂ exhibits charge density wave ordering. This entire doping sequence is likely to create two quantum critical points related to these charge density waves and anti-ferromagnetic states. Such quantum critical points have been linked to high temperature superconductivity in cuprates, so the study of the similar RAgSb₂ crystals may lead to further insights about superconductivity. We use measurements of resistance versus temperature, magnetic susceptibility, and quantum oscillations to explore the effect of the chosen doping sequence. Part of this phase diagram has been determined, and no superconducting phase of RAgSb₂ has been found yet, but further doped crystals with finer spacing need to be grown to resolve the quantum critical points of interest. In addition to superconductivity, quantum oscillations in the crystal lattice are used to track changes in the material’s Fermi surface and effective mass. These oscillations are associated with the Landau quantization of electronic energy in an applied magnetic field. Magnetic-susceptibility data is also studied to locate the divergent temperature of the crystals follwing the Currie-Weiss fit.

Biomimicry as a practice has generated a plethora of innovative technologies. By observing key processes that evolution has converged upon, we can improve and evolve manmade mechanisms. This literature review addresses the importance of vortices in biological systems and compares their locomotive purposes across a wide range of animal phyla. The development of particle image velocimetry (PIV) has enhanced our ability to study the vortex mechanics of remarkably fast or efficient animals. Such experiments have made great contributions to the human understanding of flow and kinematics. Vorticity studies, for example, have produced results that contradict the paradigm for animal motion-- particularly in how the inherent low-pressure zone associated with vortices can allow animals to maneuver through a fluid. Lampreys and jellyfish have shown to use vortex-based locomotive techniques to “suck” themselves through the water. Additionally, the “hyper-pitching" process of the zooplanktonic sea butterfly is controlled by pressure fields generated by leading edge vortices. Such findings have interesting implications for the future of biomimetic water and air travel, as the utilization of pressure as opposed to thrust may facilitate the creation of more efficient vehicles. Furthermore, comparative biological studies allow for a more in-depth interpretation of animal kinematics that have been difficult to study due to lack of proper technology. By creating qualitative analogies between air travel and water travel, we can reexamine how airborne creatures move.

Gravity remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics. Since Einstein’s Theory of Relativity not many new discoveries have happened. There are several big questions remaining about it such as: Why is it so much weaker than the other forces of nature? Is it mediated by a particle like the other forces? Is there a unifying theory between gravity and quantum mechanics? Does gravity have a place in the standard model? There are many theories proposed today which attempt to answer these questions, such as the presence of extra dimensions in string theory. If the effects of these theories exist, they would be present at small length scales (less than 1 mm). In order to test these theories, our lab uses a torsion balance experiment at sub-millimeter lengths. Our torsion balance experiment consists of an attractor mass on a turn table, and a detector mass hanging from a thin wire. Each has wedges cut out of it in the same pattern. The test is run by operating the turntable and measures the gravitational torque experienced by the detector mass. My project is to use a code that simulates the gravitational torque in order to investigate its dependence on different orientations and geometrical aspects of the experiment, as well as to improve on future runs of the experiment. This experiment will shed light on previously unknown aspects of Gravity and hopefully provide new discoveries to the field of gravitational physics.

Is the neutrino its own anti-particle? This is a question physicists do not have the answer to, but if a process known as neutrinoless double-beta decay were observed then it could be said with certainty that the neutrino is indeed its own anti-particle. In an attempt to search for said process, researchers at UW have joined forces with researchers from a number of other institutions to form the group known as LEGEND (Large Enriched Germanium Experiment for Neutrinoless Double-Beta Decay). The source used for this experiment that undergoes double beta-decay is Germanium-76. This source is also used for the detector itself. When a beta decay happens in the detector a pulse proportional to the energy of the electrons emitted is produced. If these electrons have all the energy available from the decay, then it will be known that no neutrinos are present. What makes things tricky is that if this process occurs it does so with a half-life greater than 10²⁶ years. Thus, counting rates for this process will be very low, and very low backgrounds will be needed to effectively carry out the experiment. Currently at UW we are working on developing pulse rejection techniques that will allow us to get rid of unwanted background events that our detectors measure. The project I'm presenting on involves aiming a collimated alpha source at our detector, and the goal is to develop techniques that allow us to reject pulses resulting from alpha decays. A number of other collimated sources are also aimed at the detector in order to study rejecting the pulses that they give rise to. In order to help design this experiment I am running simulations in the Geant4 based application “g4simple” to determine collimator dimensions and materials that will work best for different radiation sources.

Gravitational wave research comprises an emerging field in physics, as many institutions around the world rely on measurements from the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), and other interferometers as a vital source of data. Wave parameters provide valuable information about the astrophysical source properties, such as sky localization, source mass, spin, luminosity distance, and orbital inclination, and can also be used for an independent determination of the Hubble constant and tests of general relativity, and the nature of gravity itself. For these reasons, enhancing the absolute accuracy of gravitational wave detectors is essential. The accuracy of these parameters is fundamentally limited by calibration uncertainty. Accordingly, this project researches methods of enhancing the absolute accuracy of gravitational wave measurements to augment the data obtained by interferometers such as Advanced LIGO, to advance gravitational research. One current calibration method relies mainly on photon pressure calibrators (PCals), which are based on the measurement of test mass displacement generated by a periodic force via radiation pressure from the reflection of a power–modulated laser. The technological limit of the absolute calibration uncertainty corresponds to a few percent due to uncertainty in power, and thus limits accuracy in source parameters. The LIGO affiliated Eot-Wash team at the Center for Experimental Nuclear Physics and Astrophysics (CENPA) works to minimize fundamental systematic uncertainty in calibration methods through extended analysis of the combination of gravity field calibrators (GCals) and PCals. GCals make use of a gravity gradient to achieve modulation of the test mass displacement for calibration, providing an alternative source of accurate actuation. The combination of the two calibrators could reduce the systematic uncertainty in GW strain measurements and improve astrophysics with LIGO.

Our research group performs one of the highest-precision tests of Einstein’s equivalence principle, perhaps the most fundamental property of gravitation, using a sensitive rotating torsion balance. Among the leading experimental challenges are temporal and spatial temperature variation. Notably, horizontal temperature gradients across the apparatus, if not properly characterized, can emulate an equivalence-principle violating signal. We have implemented thermal shielding and run tests to measure the thermal effects on our measurement. Past tests have shown a need for both absolute and differential temperature sensors with higher sensitivity. Hence, my research project focuses on investigating the effect of temperature gradient on our experiments by constructing a thermal monitoring system. I have designed, laid out, constructed, and tested sensitive bridge thermistor circuits that can function as both absolute and differential temperature sensors. Current tests of our prototypes have shown that temperature sensitivities reaching 10 micro-Kelvin in one second (10^-5K/Hz^0.5). We are scaling-up these sensors and plan to deploy them in this academic year. Successful completion of this project will yield improved understanding of the temperature gradients within our experimental apparatus, allowing us to test the equivalence principle with yet higher precision.

At the UW tandem particle accelerator located at the Center for Nuclear Physics and Astrophysics (CENPA), a program is searching for new physics though precision measurements of electron spectra from radioactive decays. The most sensitive searches require very pure Neon-19, which has a halflife of about 17 seconds. Accordingly, we have designed and constructed a system that produces Neon-19. We first bombarded Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF₆) with protons from the accelerator. We then metered the SF₆ and Neon-19 mix out into a cryogenic trap where it freezes only the SF₆. After the trap, we transported the remaining Neon-19 with a turbomolecular pump into the detector. Once the trap had filled with solid SF₆, it was valved off from the target, then heated, at which time the frozen SF₆ sublimated into to a storage tank before refilling the target. By using a pair of traps, the experiment can be run continuously; one trap thaws while the other freezes. Through models based on nuclear cross-section data from previous experiments, the system will produce on the order of 10¹⁰ Neon-19 nuclei per second. Our system will contribute to an effort to better describe the interactions of particles and refine the Standard Model of particle physics.

Isotropic scattering in various spatial dimensions is considered for arbitrary finite-range potentials using non-relativistic effective field theory. With periodic boundary conditions, compactifications from a box to a plane and to a wire, and from a plane to a wire, are considered by matching S-matrix elements. General relations among (all) effective-range parameters in the various dimensions are derived through a functional relationship, and the dependence of bound states on changing dimensionality are considered. This research was conducted by matching the effective range parameters in one dimension to the particle scattering within another dimension. This relationship ultimately leads to the immediate functional relationship of the effective range parameters in varying dimensions. Generally, it is found that compactification binds the two-body system, even if the uncompactified system is unbound. For instance, compactification from a box to a plane gives rise to a bound state with binding momentum given by ln(1/2(3 + √5)) in units of the inverse compactification length. This binding momentum is universal in the sense that it does not depend on the two-body interaction in the box. This research will in the future allow for the calculations of practical and important thermodynamic variables such as pressure, energy of Bose gases with varying lengths of a three dimensional box.

High purity germanium (HPGe) detectors are an important technology in several leading experimental searches for dark matter and neutrinoless double beta decay. Understanding the interaction of various types of radiation on the different surfaces of HPGe detectors is essential to developing methods to reject unwanted signals from radioactive background sources. I have taken a leading role in the construction and use of the Collimated Alphas, Gammas, and Electrons (CAGE) test stand at the University of Washington, whose goal is to evaluate the response of an HPGe detector to different types of radiation on its various surfaces. CAGE is a vacuum cryostat with an internal system of motors that move a radiation source while keeping the detector active. It requires the operation of a liquid nitrogen cryostat, vacuum pump, temperature sensors, and various radioactive sources, all of which must be integrated into a single data acquisition (DAQ) system. We are currently constructing this system, fabricating and installing parts, and are planning to take initial data with the HPGe detector in the summer. In this talk I will present the current status of the CAGE detector, as well as preliminary data from radiation signals in the detector.

Here at the University of Washington we are characterizing one ton of NaI[Tl] crystal scintillator detectors for use in the COHERENT project. NaI[Tl] scintillating crystals detectors work by producing photons from the kinetic energy of charged particles passing through the scintillating material. COHERENT aims to detect coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering, a novel interaction between neutrinos and matter that was first observed less than two years ago. It employs a large scale of scintillator detectors in order to record these events at an appreciable scale. Our characterization campaign allows us to group crystals with similar outputs by voltage which will determine the setup of our detectors once at ORNL. During this characterization, the crystals exhibited behaviors that correlated with the ambient temperature of the lab. The temperature dependence was first noticed during voltage gain characterization tests taken at different times of the day in the uncontrolled temperature environment of our lab. We expect the gain of our crystals to fit to a curve function, which breaks down if data is taken at different times of the day. The goal of this study is to understand the impact of temperature dependencies on our characterization campaign, and in particular to derive a relationship between voltage gain and temperature. I will present the data gathered toward this goal, and also our larger body of data on the relationship between light yield, voltage gain, peak resolution, and waveform rise time, as well as the techniques used to re-characterize previous crystals gain curve based on the derived relationship from this study.

Current data storage elements have reached their threshold capabilities due to extensive data and limiting size requirements. Digital storage in DNA has aroused considerable interest as the next generation miniaturized high capacity storage device. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) forms the genetic blueprint of life and is the primary carrier of genetic information in living cells and organisms. Data storage in DNA involves encoding of digital binary data into synthesized DNA strands. Here, we employ calculus-based methods to provide a comparative study of data storage capacities of conventional CD ROM and DNA. We use parametric equations to model the spiral structure in CD ROM and double helix of DNA and employ calculus-based methods to study the arc length, curvature and topological properties of DNA. The data storage densities for binary, base 3 and base 4 in DNA are estimated. The calculated data storage densities are found to be in good agreement with reported estimates. Recent studies demonstrate that magnetic nano-knots can be used for data storage. The topological properties of DNA including twists, links and knots thus provide additional attributes which may in future be used for data storage.

The use of magnetic nano-knots and Brunnian links for data storage and communications, makes understanding the geometric and network topology of knots and links very important. Recent reports suggest that DNA and other halogen networks self-assemble into exotic Borromean ring molecular topologies. Borromean rings form a Brunnian link with three rings linked in such a way that no two alone are connected. Only when all the three rings come together does the linkage occur. Borromean links form the current logo of the International Mathematical Union and they display strength in unity. Understanding knots, links and their networking is central to our understanding of DNA, protein folding, polymers and other soft materials. We have used a 3D printer to print and design a Borromean Math puzzle. The puzzle falls apart when a link is pulled out and is an excellent learning tool for studying Borromean link topologies. We use mathematical methods using parametric equations to study Borromean rings and trefoil knots. We wrote computer visualization code using SAGE to display trefoil knots and complex Borromean links for distorted circular, elliptical and other geometries. The SIEFERT surface of Borromean links are sketched using SeifertView and provide an aesthetic 3D view of the rings which can be oriented on a plane. The Seifert surface of a knot is a knot invariant; it is the characteristic of the knot with the knot as a boundary. The adjacency matrix and topological connectivity of the links are studied using vector directed graph models. A computer program is written to unravel the complex linking and intriguing connectivity properties of the trefoil knot and Borromean networks.

The DAMIC experiment searches for dark matter particle interactions with silicon charged-coupling devices (CCDs). The expected signal are the nuclear recoils following the interaction between the external particles and the silicon nuclei of the CCD. These appear as groupings of pixels on the CCD images where the charge collects from the ionized silicon. Recently, it was proposed that the recoiling silicon nucleus could cause a secondary ionization signal a few pixels away. This is due to a three-body final state where a third particle, a photon, is emitted at the point of interaction. We investigated a series of images from a CCD that was exposed to a neutron source, which also produces nuclear recoils in the silicon. We looked for spatial correlations between events and found that there was an excess of correlated events within the energy range of the neutron source. This excess was found in the neutron data but was absent in the background data. Currently, we are looking at the energy and separation of the events in more detail to learn about their origin. If the observation of three-body final states is confirmed, DAMIC will have found a new way to search for dark matter.

The 6He experiment located at the North Physics Lab aims to reach sensitivity 10 ^-3 or better in searching for beyond standard model tensor currents that violates chirality. The Fierz interference coefficient (little b) is linearly depended on tensor couplings and can be experimentally extracted by precisely measuring the 6He beta decay spectrum. The technique of cyclotron radiation emission spectroscopy from Project 8 (A neutrino experiment located at the UW Physics building) will be used to reconstruct 6He beta spectrum by measuring the cyclotron radiation frequency of the decayed electrons. Each piece of the energy spectrum will be measured separately by varying the magnetic field strength. Since the total number of 6He atoms entering the decay volume can vary over time, each part of the spectrum needs to be normalized to the same scale before combination. This requires a monitoring system that counts the total number of 6He atoms over each data taking period. As part of the effort to prepare for the upcoming 6He experimental run, this project is to develop this monitoring system so that it maintains its stability at the level of 10 ^-3 . The test was done on three experimental setups including a pair of gas counter plus silicon detector, a pair of scintillators and a single silicon detector under vacuum. Of the three setups, the single silicon detector reached desired stability on the most recent experimental run although more validations are needed. A successful setup of the monitoring system will help the experiment to reach desired sensitivity with spectrum normalization. And the detection of tensor currents implies the existence of symmetry breaking with chirality in beyond standard model theories.

Jupiter and Saturn are our solar system’s largest gas giants with some of the most popular features of any known planet: Jupiter’s Great Red Spot (GRS) and Saturn’s rings. Over the summer of 2018, we analyzed these characteristics at Pacific Lutheran University’s W. M. Keck Observatory. Closer to the Earth, Jupiter’s atmosphere is subject to differential rotation in which the atmosphere of the planet rotate at different speeds. We use feature tracking and 2D to 3D mapping techniques to observationally determine the angular rotation of the GRS and compare it to the expected rotation of 11.5 km/s determined by the magnetosphere. Through our analysis we observe the movement of the GRS over multiple nights and determine the average speed to be around 10.97 km/s, a 4.60% difference from the expected value. Further beyond, Saturn’s rings are composed of particles of ice and dust that are thought to be remnants of comets, asteroids, or moons that collided in orbit around the planet. Since these rings are not single structures, their particles feature non-uniform spacing. The light intensity of the rings increase as you approach the B ring from either direction (with the exceptions of the Cassini Division, Encke, and Keeler gaps). Our research focused on determining the spatial variation of these intensities as observed from our land-based observatory and comparing this data to Hubble Space Telescope data quantifying atmospheric scattering in Tacoma.

The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatories uses michelson-type interferometers that have two, 4-kilometer-long arms with suspended test masses (mirrors) at the ends of the arms. The test masses reflect high-power lasers to be combined at the output port of the two arms and create an interference pattern, which is sensitive to gravitational waves passing through the interferometer. For a stable interference pattern, the test masses must be oriented precisely; the low frequency orienting of the test masses is done using optical levers. The optical levers consist of optics that launch light from a diode laser to reflect off the test mass and hit a quadrant photodiode which measures the position of the light spot. However the measurement of this position has elevated amounts of noise at low frequencies, limiting the angular motion accuracy. The reduction of this noise by a factor of 10-100, would allow for a more accurate orienting of the cavity holding the test mass. One possibility is that the noise is due to mode fluctuations in the fiber optics connected to the launching telescope. To isolate this noise I recreated parts of the LIGO OPLEV setup with a level of electronic position noise well below the order of LIGO's current OPLEV noise at 0.1 Hz (10-9 meter per square root hertz level). To achieve noise at this level I have made a new low noise pre-amplifier, improved the physical stability of the setup, and analyzed data to identify the noise sources.With this reduced noise setup we plan to search for the source of LIGO's OPLEV low frequency noise and ultimately reduce noise in gravitational wave detection at low frequencies. Reduced noise will lead to more GW detections and new astrophysics, which will allow us to 'hear' the universe in a unique way.

Single electron devices (SEDs) are electronic devices that can isolate individual electrons along a conducting path. SEDs have potential applications in the field of metrology [science of measurement] and quantum computation. However, the devices have issues with performance, uniformity, and stability that must be addressed before these applications can be realized. To investigate these issues with SEDs, this work focuses on low-frequency charge noise, much less than 1 Hz, called charge offset drift. Previous studies have shown that the geometry of the device impacts charge offset drift. In this talk, I will describe our efforts to extend these studies, performed at 2.5 Kelvin, to millikelvin temperatures to further our understanding of these issues.

One of the open questions in neutrino physics is the absolute mass scale of the neutrino, currently recognized as the only fundamental fermion whose mass scale is not fully known. The Project 8 neutrino experiment employs cyclotron radiation emission spectroscopy (CRES) to probe the neutrino mass spectrum, a method developed to measure electron energy by detecting cyclotron radiation through the acceleration of electrons confined in a magnetic (B) field. CRES data relies on energy precision which is directly related to B-field precision, therefore it is pertinent to monitor the time-varying field vector in which the experiment lies. Initial B-field surveys in our laboratory provided insight into the volatility of the local field environment, showing stray field fluctuations up to .5 microTesla produced by neighboring high field, high ramp-cycle magnets. This discovery motivated the implementation of the ambient magnetic field array measurement (AMFAM) system which monitors the local field environment and helps parse fluctuations in the B-field that could adversely affect the CRES data. The AMFAM system utilizes multiple triple-axis magnetometers placed around our laboratory for strategic B-field investigation. I worked on the development of the Arduino-based software to extract appropriate data from the magnetometers, as well as the hardware and wiring of the array system. I present my plans to execute data analysis and describe how long-term investigation of field conditions will benefit Project 8’s CRES data.

Quantum sensing applications require diamonds with high concentrations of high-fidelity NV centers. Here we find we can significantly increase the NV center density in high-purity diamond by over a factor of ten by simple annealing. We perform fifteen anneals starting with 800 °C up to 1100 °C. Throughout each anneal, we track thousands of individual NV centers in a large experiment volume (350x350x500 um³) using a custom confocal microscope. Peak NV density was observed to occur at 980 °C. Spectroscopy measurements also show near ideal NV quantum characteristics for the newly formed centers. With this process, we can optimize NV formation for magnetic field sensing and quantum entanglement applications.

The DArk Matter In Charge-coupled devices (DAMIC) group at the University of Washington tests and packages charge-coupled devices (CCDs) that are used to detect dark matter. The CCD pixel array collects the free electrons that originate from collisions between silicon atoms and outside particles traveling through the CCD. The signal from these electrons is then measured and a two-dimensional image is produced, showing the interaction of the outside particles with the silicon atoms. In order to "see" a dark matter interaction, the CCDs have to be isolated from non-dark matter particles that may pass through. To do this, the experiment is operated 2 km underground and surrounded with lead blocks. However, these measures are in vain if there are radioactive particulates on the packaged CCDs. Radioactive isotopes decay and produce an array of particles, which are detected. One opportunity for particulate contamination is when the CCDs are exposed to the air in the DAMIC cleanroom. Therefore, the cleanliness of the cleanroom must be measured. This is done using a sampling procedure that has been standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO). We used particle counters to count the number of airborne particulates and then analyzed the data using the ISO classification system. From this, we now know the cleanliness of the DAMIC cleanroom. Additionally, electron microscopy is being used to characterize the particulates that land on the CCDs during the wire-bonding process.

The Penrose process is a theoretical method for extracting energy from a spinning black hole. This study clarifies the conceptual framework and underlying mathematics of the physics involved. Working within the context of General Relativity, we begin with the metric for a spinning black hole (Kerr metric) and discuss the meaning of the space-time variables employed. Next, by considering particle trajectories, the effect of “frame dragging” is derived, whereby spacetime itself is “dragged” along in the direction of the black hole’s spin. This effect ultimately is what allows a net positive energy to be extracted from the black hole. To calculate the amount of energy, first the appropriate expression for energy is obtained from the Kerr metric via variational calculus. Finally, the Penrose process is explained, where payloads of matter and antimatter annihilate just outside the event horizon, producing light. A light pulse travelling in the opposite direction of the spin falls into the black hole, while a pulse travelling in the opposite direction escapes. Bringing everything together, the net energy produced by the Penrose process is calculated.