All natural features that make up river systems are created through erosion. The energy in the water column that causes this erosion is called turbulence. Turbulence isn’t limited to river systems, but the focus of this paper is on turbulence, specifically within the possession sound. Depending on how water is flowing within a local ecosystem, the terrain and biological components in that ecosystem can change drastically. In this study I examine how turbulent flow in the mouth of the Snohomish River in Everett, Washington changes relative to river discharge. I defined turbulence for this study as the relationship of the direction and magnitude of two vertically adjacent water particles. I also used a variation of the Reynolds number (Re) to more clearly define the difference between Transitional and Turbulent flow. In this study, data were collected with a 3-beam Aquadopp 1MHz Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP), which measures the speed of passing particles in the water column at 1-meter increments starting at 1.4-meters above the river bed. I processed the data in RStudio and Excel. From preliminary research I know that during periods of high flow, the difference of adjacent flows is more dramatic at depth than it is anywhere else in the water column. I also have observed constant random direction of water flow towards the surface. It is expected that this will also be observed while doing tests with the Re, meaning that there will be continuous high Re at the surface due to outside influences, with low Re at depth during periods of normal flow rate. It is also expected that there will be prolonged high Re throughout the water column during and after periods of high flow rates.

Salinity is a fundamental component of all estuarine environments, affecting water chemistry and density-driven flow dynamics. In the Snohomish River Estuary in Washington State, saltwater from Possession Sound and freshwater from the Snohomish River stratify, forming a partially-mixed salt-wedge estuary. Haloclines, zones of rapid salinity-change, vary in depth depending on season, temperature, and freshwater influx. Above and below the halocline, the water column displays relative homogeneity in salinity. An established relationship between tide height and salinity may allow researchers to use accessible tide data as an indicator of salinity. If such a relationship were to change, any difference from the baseline relationship may be used as a measure of change in the ecosystem to track climate change and other factors. I examined salinity data collected throughout the water column, at surface, halocline, and deep zones, to detect the influence of tides on salinity. I anticipated increased tide height, paired with corresponding saltwater encroach, to correspond to an increase in the salinity of brackish water at the halocline. I expected surface and deep zones would be relatively unaffected, owing to their separation from this immediate area of change. I predicted any relationship between tide height and salinity to strengthen with increased distance from the Snohomish River, as saltwater would be less diluted by freshwater, implying a more noticeable influence on it. My analysis of readings taken at field sites in Possession Sound from 2017-2020, restricted according to site and season, did not present any consistent correlation between degree of tide-salinity correlation and distance from the Snohomish river. I detected varying correlation between salinity at restricted depths and tide height. Further research will entail further elimination of confounding variables.

When fast-moving water flows into a basin with weaker tides, a highly stratified salt-wedge estuary occurs. Calculating the travel time of water in an estuary can be useful when predicting pollutant spills, erosion, and depositional effects at the river mouth. This study examines the Snohomish River, which is part of a salt-wedge estuary that encompasses the Port of Everett Marina and deposits into Possession Sound in the Whidbey Basin of the Salish Sea. When the tide floods, water goes north. River travel time calculated by previous Ocean Research College Academy (ORCA) students was nearly 10 hours of delay between a United States Geological Survey monitor located 12 miles upriver and water quality data at the river mouth. This previous research shows there will be less travel time and less water speed during high tides. A more accurate travel time can be found by cross-correlating river discharge with water speed. Through retrieving water speed and direction at the river mouth, one can develop current vectors to compare with tide stage. Using the distance to the water's surface from the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) near the riverbed, one can determine the tidal effect on river speed and travel time through extreme water levels correlating to low and high tides. This study investigates July 2020 ADCP North/South vectors at the river mouth and correlates them to river discharge upriver. Using RStudio statistical analysis, this correlation is then compared to ADCP water height to model for tides. It is predicted that the faster the river discharge and the larger the Southern vectors, then the more drastic decrease in ADCP’s height in the river. Further research would include adding more ADCP data and precipitation to consider seasonal patterns. Since runoff feeds the Snohomish River, examining precipitation would create a more accurate model.

Chronic non-bacterial osteomyelitis (CNO) is a rare disease where the immune system attacks healthy bone, leading to inflammation and destruction. Currently, the use of inflammation markers - which consists of a blood test for erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and c reactive protein (CRP), a clinical visit, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are used to monitor the state of CNO. However, the reports from these assessments are inconsistent as longitudinal data allowing for a detailed analysis is lacking.Thus, we aim to investigate the association among these disease monitoring modalities using Seattle Children's Hospital CNO research database. The database which contains patients under 21 years old, spanning from January 2014 - January 2021 is one of the largest composed. We hypothesize that an increased presence of lesions, as observed through MRI, correlates with a greater value of inflammation markers and greater physician global assessment (PGA) score. Through blood samples and MRI scans, ESR/CRP values and number of active lesions within 30 days of the visit were recorded. General statistical methods were used to summarize the data and determine correlation. We expect a strong positive correlation between active lesion count and ESR/CRP values. ESR/CRP values measure the rate of inflammation. As inflammation is a common physiological symptom stemming from lesion presence, a positive correlation between these variables must occur. Additionally, we expect a strong positive correlation between active lesion count and PGA scores. PGA scores are determined during clinical visits and are drawn from assessing a patient’s current condition. The prominence/severity of lesions are factored into the PGA score. As CNO lacks a reliable technique to monitor the disease, we expect that the results from this study will shed light on a reliable and robust assessment tool to monitor disease activity.
 

The Fermilab Muon g-2 experiment seeks to measure the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon to 140 ppb. A highly purified beam of muons is delivered to a magnetic storage ring in bursts of ~15,000 muons called fills. The rate of change of the angle between a muon’s momentum and spin while orbiting in the storage ring is the anomalous precession frequency, which is directly proportional to the anomalous magnetic moment. During each fill, muons orbit in the storage ring until they decay into positrons which spiral into electromagnetic calorimeters stationed around the ring. Positrons which impact the calorimeter deposit their energy in the calorimeters as Cherenkov radiation. The time dependance of the positron energy spectrum is used to extract the anomalous precession frequency of muons in the storage ring. “Early to late effects” are a class of systematic uncertainty in the experiment which result from coherent changes of experimental conditions within each fill. These effects can directly bias the measured anomalous precession frequency. One such effect arose from malfunctioning resistors in the ring’s electrostatic quadrupoles, resulting in non-ideal vertical focusing of the muon beam. This led to coherent downward motion of the beam during each fill. This directly couples into one of the largest systematic effects, as the calorimeter acceptance depends in part on the beam's vertical position. Using data from the calorimeters, I quantified early to late change in the beam’s vertical position and vertical distribution. These results were used to cross-check results from simulation programs. If the Fermilab Muon g-2 experiment retains the same central value as the previous generation measurement but with 140 ppb precision it will be in greater than 5-sigma tension with standard model calculations. Results from Run 1 of the experiment are expected to be published in early 2021.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a vital component of marine ecosystems, providing the key life source for thousands of species of marine vertebrates and invertebrates. Oxygen’s solubility in seawater is influenced by many variables, which can make DO difficult to predict. Estuarine systems experience DO fluctuations, as DO can limit ecosystem reproduction and health. Levels below 4 mg/L induce hypoxic conditions, creating stress for marine organisms, which makes tracking DO levels over time an essential tool for monitoring marine ecosystem health. My research provides Spatial-temporal depth analysis of DO data from the years 2014 through 2021 in the Snohomish River Estuary in Everett, Washington. Temporally, I predicted DO to exhibit a seasonal trend with highs in the winter and lows in the summer and decrease yearly at all depths due to global ocean temperature increase. Spatially, I expected DO to be higher at sites closer to the Snohomish River, and slightly lower at locations further from the river, in the center of the sound. With regard to depths, I predicted DO to be higher near the surface and lower near the bottom, and the oxycline is expected to get closer to the surface over time. Data were collected using an EXO2 Sonde at five different field sites at varying distances from the Snohomish River. I analyzed data using Excel, RStudio, and ArcGIS. Results found that DO is increasing over most sites with seasonal fluctuations of higher DO in the winter, and lower in the summer. There was one hypoxic event in 2016 at Buoy, along with a yearly increase in DO that suggests hypoxic conditions in Possession Sound may not last. Spatially, DO is higher at sites closer to the mainland, contrary to my hypothesis. Continuation of research will include further analysis of Spatial-temporal data in ArcGIS and Rstudio.

Local processes in marine ecosystems, including coastal estuaries, modify ocean acidification caused by rising atmospheric CO2. Because ocean acidification poses a threat to shell-forming organisms, it is critical to understand how these processes affect acidification in specific regions. In the Snohomish River estuary, freshwater from river discharge deposits directly into Possession Sound, impacting the salinity and temperature of the area. River discharge in estuaries has been found to be slightly acidic, as well as a source of nutrients that fuel blooms of phytoplankton. Large phytoplankton blooms can lower the pH at depth because of the process of respiration, which releases CO2 and decreases dissolved oxygen levels. My research examines changes in pH with temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, and dissolved oxygen at different depths in Possession Sound, Washington, using data collected from January 2017 through January 2021 with a YSI EXO2 Sonde. I hypothesized that near-surface depths and sites located closer to the river would have lower temperatures and salinities correlating with lower pH. Additionally, lower dissolved oxygen at greater depths would correlate with greater amounts of chlorophyll and a decrease in pH at depth. Depths near the halocline were predicted to have alkaline pH values due to photosynthetic organisms. I analyzed data using Microsoft Excel and R Studio. Results found that with chlorophyll less than ~1.25 RFU, pH was greater than 8.0, while with lower dissolved oxygen, pH was less than 7.75. Temperatures less than 10°C corresponded with more pH values between 7.0 and 7.5, while salinity had no apparent trend. In most seasons, pH appeared to decrease slightly at greater depths. The exception to this was winter, when more acidic pH values were observed at near-surface depths. Overall these results indicate that local processes in the Snohomish River estuary are affecting changes in pH.

Possession Sound is a dynamic salt wedge estuary system near Everett, Washington that is fed by the Snohomish River. In salt wedge estuaries, a mix of salt and fresh water creates a salinity gradient between the two sources, with the denser, saltier water making up the lower sections of the vertical gradient, and the freshwater residing above it. Turbulence from river flow and tidal currents decreases the concentration of suspended sediment in the water column, measured as turbidity. As stratification increases, turbulence increases too, which then causes lower turbidity. This study explores influences on turbidity at the Everett Marina during the year 2020. In the Everett Marina, North flow corresponds with flood tides, and South flow during ebb tides. During these tidal exchanges, the prediction is that when the tide is slack, the horizontal velocities of the water would show an east/west flow. This east/west flow would create vertical mixing because of upwelling and higher turbidity in the water. Two-dimensional horizontal river flow velocities from 0.9 to 4.9 meters from the riverbed at half-meter and meter increments were measured using a grant-supported deployment of an Aquadopp ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler). Turbidity was collected using a CTD deployed 1.7 meters from the surface. The volume, velocity, and sediment deposition of river water were compiled from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and tide heights were published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Preliminary results indicate an inverse relationship between tidal height and turbidity and with an emphasis on further Spatio-temporal relationships, more conclusions may be found. The Everett Marina hosts dredging of the estuary in order to maintain safe river flow to the Possession sound itself. Without this river flow, needed nutrients may not reach the saltwater, disrupting the ecosystem, and increasing flooding.

Hypoxia refers to low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a body of water, and can result in death of marine biota. Hypoxic events have increased since the 1970s in shallow coastal and estuarine areas to the point where DO has arguably changed more drastically than other environmental variables of importance to these ecosystems. Studies have found that the main drivers increasing the frequency and intensity of hypoxic events are eutrophication as a result of nutrient loading and increasing water temperatures due to climate change. Puget Sound in Washington State is particularly susceptible to hypoxia because the geological features of its basin restrict water circulation and the Sound receives a high influx of nutrients from rivers and anthropogenic activity. Studies have reported hypoxia in regions of Puget Sound, including Sisters Point, Lynch Cove, and Hood Canal. This study provides a temporal and spatial analysis of DO in Possession Sound, an inlet of Puget Sound where the Snohomish River empties, to contribute to the growing understanding of hypoxia in Puget Sound, particularly in an estuarine environment. DO data were analyzed along with water temperature data to determine if hypoxia occurred in Possession Sound and to assess where potential hypoxia is more likely to occur. These data were collected by students at the Ocean Research College Academy (ORCA) at six sites in Possession Sound from 2017 to 2020 using an EXO Sonde instrument which allows for vertical analysis of DO in the water column. Preliminary results show that potentially toxic concentrations of DO occurred at depth during the winter months with a minimum value of 4.08 mg/L. It also appears that DO concentrations vary substantially between sites, years, seasons, and depths.

Wireless power through magnetic resonance between coils of wire has enabled a new charging paradigm in a variety of domains, from robotics to biomedical implants. As wireless power systems move from simplistic to more perfomant architectures comprising of many coils, the design complexity scales very quickly. This is due to the difficulty in simulating and modeling the magnetic fields that form the backbone of the wireless power transfer, as in the multi-coil case the computational complexity quickly exceeds the capacity of even high end servers. To enable the development of next generation wireless power devices, we developed the Mostly Printed Field Characterization System (MPFCS), a robotic scanner that collects high-fidelity, high-resolution magnetic field data. However, while the system creates useful visualizations for wireless power, it does not provide a mathematical model that would allow for the precise optimization and rigorous understanding of the fields that engineers often need. Addressing that, we present physics-driven machine learning methods that combine electromagnetic theory with data collected from the MPFCS to build simplified mathematical models for these magnetic fields. We provide, for the first time, a characterization of fields for systems that were previously too complex to analyze effectively by hand or through computation. Preliminary evaluation of the data shows that there is very little error compared to simulated values. Based on the algorithm's performance on similar problems, this suggests promising final results. This work provides a deeper understanding and design tool to build and iterate on next generation devices, leading to both accelerated prototyping and novel research directions.