The Eocene-Oligocene Transition (EOT) 34 million years ago was one of Earth’s most dramatic global cooling events from a hothouse with no ice caps to our current icehouse world with intermittent glaciations. It is important to understand the details behind the EOT in order to understand the mechanisms that can drive such significant climate change as well as the magnitude of the effects such a shift could cause to modern ecosystems. Here, we apply geochemical methods to organic-rich rocks from the Yaw Formation in the central Myanmar to reconstruct its paleoenvironments and gain a better understanding of Eocene climate in Southeast Asia. The ratio of the stable Carbon isotopes C12 and C13 (d13C) from plant matter in rocks can be used as a proxy for changes in the amount of woody cover in tropical ecosystems as well as mean annual precipitation (MAP). Using mass spectrometry on coals and sandstones of various ages, we are able to see how the d13C values have evolved over time in order to observe possible trends in Myanmar’s paleoenvironment. Preliminary results show an increase in d13C values over time which could indicate aridification in the environment.

In a region as tectonically and volcanically active as the Pacific Northwest, accurate models of tectonic history are essential to inform our understanding of modern tectonics dynamics. At present, very little is known of the history of the Olympic Mountain Range. Previous work has used fission track dating to date the onset of exhumation of the Olympic Mountains and has placed it around 18 Million years. Fission track dating as a method relies on the analysis of fissures in certain uranium containing minerals, in this case zircon and apatite, to determine when the rock body they inhabit cooled below the temperature at which that mineral is no longer able to chemically diffuse with its surroundings. This data is a proxy for paleodepth, however it gives little information about the topography at that time. In the past 20 years, newer, more precise methods have been developed such as Uranium-Lead dating of detrital zircon crystals. This method relies on analyzing zircon minerals extracted from sandstones and dating them using the radioactive decay of Uranium to Lead, and eventually comparing these ages with those of the potential sediment sources to reconstruct their provenance. Here, we analyze sandstones from the Seattle Basin and Olympic Peninsula to reconstruct the uplift history of this region. This approach coupled with stratigraphic techniques may be used to place a more precise age constraint on the onset of high topography in the modern Olympic Mountains: an event which tremendously impacted regional tectonics, ecology and climate in Washington State.

Myanmar, in Southeast Asia, has recently opened access to foreign geologists; however, most of the Burmese geology still remains to be studied. At the western edge of Myanmar, the Indo-Burman mountain ranges today form a prominent topographic high. One of the big mysteries in geology of Myanmar is the precise timing of the Indo-Burman Ranges uplift, which is currently estimated to be in between the early Cretaceous (~140 million years ago) and the Neogene (~20 million years ago) periods. Here, we present preliminary sedimentary provenance in river and sedimentary basins between the Indo-Burman Ranges and the central Myanmar low plains. We use Uranium-Lead radioactive ages of detrital zircon crystals from dated sedimentary rocks, revealing the source of the sedimentary input which resulted from the uplift of the surrounding mountains. Our results will indicate the timing of sedimentary input to our study basin sites, and when the uplift of the Indo-Burman Ranges occurred. Dating the Indo-Burman Ranges uplift will contribute to understanding tectonic activities in the past, which would have affected the regional climate evolution, such as the Asian monsoons.

This research project is part of the Puget Sound Foraminifera Research Project at the Burke Museum, which uses benthic Foraminifera to measure and assess anthropogenic impacts and mitigation efforts in Puget Sound. Benthic Foraminifera, shelled marine protists, are readily preserved in sediments and can be very sensitive to their environment, allowing us to use them as a proxy for changes in marine ecosystems. My project looks at mismatches between Foraminifera that were living and dead at the time of collection to determine whether these discordances can be used to measure anthropogenic ecological change in Puget Sound. In addition, it attempts to validate the use of assemblages containing only dead Foraminifera which were used in the past. Anthropogenic ecological change is a widespread problem and is difficult to measure both the rate of changes and the success of efforts to mitigate problems. We look at Foraminiferal assemblages to establish the health of benthic ecosystems. Sediment samples used in this project are collected by the Washington State Department of Ecology in their annual sampling program. For this particular project, 12 samples from Sinclair Inlet and Bellingham Bay, were collected in Spring of 2015, 2016 and 2017. The Foraminifera were stained with Rose Bengal to identify those individuals that were living at the time of collection and identified to species. The species assemblage from each was then assessed to establish ratios of living to dead individuals and see if the dead population is representative of that of the live population. Results to date indicate that all samples from Sinclair inlet have a smaller ratio of living to dead Foraminifera than other bays. Because the ratios were radically different it may be possible to establish an index to classify embayment health based on live-dead ratios of Foraminifera individuals to use in future assessments.

Kilauea Iki Lava Lake, a lava lake in Hawaii Island, was formed during the summit eruption of Kilauea Iki caldera from late 1959 to early 1960. It has been a closed system since the event since no material was added after its formation, and it then became an excellent place to study magma differentiation. During cooling, different minerals cool at different temperature due to their difference in composition, and magma gradually differentiate along with temperature decrease. Thus, by knowing the primary composition of the magma, the differentiation pattern can be indicated. In order to observe differentiation process, the changes in oxide content in the remaining liquid were compared with MgO, the temperature-related oxide. In this project, MELTS, a software package designed by Mark.S.Ghiorso is used for my analysis. By utilizing MELTS, weight percentage of oxides vs MgO models can be calculated with known primary composition and assumed temperature, pressure and volatile content. After adjusting the model by comparing with real sample data of cooled lava, reliable models of content of oxides can be generated to be a strong indicator of differentiation process, and can be used in future studies of Kilauea Iki Lava Lake.

Since the Apollo era, the question has remained where lunar swirls (high albedo regions coincident with regions of surface magnetization) originated from. Different ideas have been proposed for their origin. Our study focuses on one of these ideas that the reason lunar swirls have a higher albedo relative to the surrounding regions is because it deflects incoming solar wind particles. This can result in darkened or weathered lunar surfaces. We have used spectro-imaging to observe the thermal properties of lunar regolith (fine grained material on the surface of the moon) in a high temperature environment via nichrome wire to simulate this occurrence. With the spectro-images we are able to observe to great magnification the physical properties of the regolith of two particular grain sizes. The nichrome wire is woven into a shape that can cover an area of lunar regolith. A current is run through the wire allowing it heat up quickly. The study thus far shows evidence of the lunar regolith possessing an amount of water, raising its heat capacitance, giving a more resistive property. The regolith itself is able to retain a considerable amount of heat after heating with nichrome wire and remains widely on the surface layer of the regolith. These properties are necessary to quantify prior to the alteration of the regolith simulant by a directed plasma beam. This study will provide a baseline to qualitatively assess the alteration relative to our study.

Stable isotope geochemistry is a powerful tool used to track changes in elemental composition of rocks to understand geologic history. A few of the more popular elements analyzed by geologists include magnesium and iron. Potassium analysis is a relatively new technique offering opportunities to delve into questions of continental erosion. My research project will aid in the development of potassium as a useful isotope tracer. I am determining the potassium isotopic compositions of 40 seawater samples with column chemistry methods and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) to investigate the homogeneity of potassium isotopes in seawater and the subsequent mixing potential of the Earth’s oceans. I chose my samples with the goal of providing a wide distribution of data both spatially and vertically within the water column, including seawater from the Gulf of Mexico, southern Hawaii coast, and the greater Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Potassium composition of the oceans is controlled by river and groundwater input of crustal material. Considering that potassium has a residence time (~12 Ma) orders of magnitude larger than the hypothesized mixing time of the oceans (~10 ka), the data should show a homogeneous potassium composition of seawater consistent with globally circulating ocean currents and a steady-state marine potassium budget. Presently, there is no global seawater potassium isotope literature value; previous studies have limited investigations to variability of potassium compositions in crustal, igneous or biological samples. Seawater is a useful geostandard for isotopic analysis because it is a readily available and vast resource that can be easily sampled and processed. The primary goal of this project is to provide a global seawater literature standard for future potassium isotopic analysis, given that my data will indicate homogeneous, well-mixed oceans representing an all-inclusive average of global potassium composition with a natural range of variation.

The main control of ocean acidity is the concentration of dissolved CO₂, which depends on the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere. CO₂ is a greenhouse gas that plays a vital role in climate change. Boron isotopes in marine carbonates can be used as a paleo-pH proxy for the oceans, and therefore can shed new light in paleo-climate reconstruction. A method that accurately and precisely analyzes boron isotopic compositions must be developed before analyzing any natural samples. This study aims to establish an optimized boron extraction procedure that is done by column chemistry using boron specific resin (Amberlite IRA-743). This resin has a high affinity to boron at pH > 5 and will be bound to the resin. Lowering the pH will decrease the resin's affinity for boron and release it from the resin. In this calibration we tested three mirco-columns (made in house) of our standard (NIST- SRM951a) in a slightly basic solution (pH ~8) and then elute them with H₂O and HNO₃ through the columns. Each column is eluted with 100μl of 1N HNO₃ 10 times and collected. Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) is then used to determine the total recovery rate and how many times the column must be eluted to get 100% yield. This column calibration procedure is an important step towards quantitative analysis on boron in natural carbonate samples.

The purpose of the project is to use benthic foraminifera to investigate the condition of the ecosystem of Possession Sound, Everett, WA, part of Puget Sound. Puget Sound is a polluted water system due to the ports, oil refineries, paper mills, agricultural runoff, and previously, a smelter. Possession Sound itself is home to private properties, a naval station, ports, marinas, and an asphalt plant on the waterfront. Foraminifera are marine protists with calcareous or agglutinated shells (tests) that are readily preserved in sediments. Because they are sensitive to environmental conditions such as bottom water pH, organic and metal pollutants, and change in temperature, they can be indicators of environmental conditions at the sediment/water interface. Calcareous foraminifera exposed to water with decreasing pH have increasing levels of test dissolution, however, agglutinated species don’t dissolve. For this study, sediment samples were collected by the Washington State Department of Ecology; and sub-samples were sent to the Burke Museum. Thirty samples were processed; each was washed through a 63 screen, floated in trichloroethylene to remove the heavier sediment, then picked for around 300 foraminifera/sample. Foraminifera were identified for analysis of their assemblages, condition, and signs of dissolution. These signs are chalkiness, pitting, holes in the shells, and removal of shell layers. The hypotheses are as follows. Dissolution will have increased over time as Puget Sound water quality has decreased in recent years. Worse water quality will result in fewer calcareous species. Foraminifera will be fewer in number since 1997, with a higher proportion being agglutinated species. Results of this investigation will deliver insight into benthic conditions of Puget Sound, specifically Possession Sound, but could also provide useful information for people who rely on Puget Sound’s benthic conditions, such as the oyster and crab industry.

This project focuses on fifteen potentially unpublished species of molluscan fossils—specifically gastropods and oysters—originating from the Sinop-Boyabat sedimentary basin in north-central Turkey. The intent is to identify each fossil in order to date the surrounding rocks, as paleontologists have discovered an unusual mammalian fossil fauna in close proximity. Marine sedimentary rocks from this region accumulated in a small rift basin connected to the Black Sea, and span from the early Cretaceous to the late Paleogene periods (140 to 30 million years ago). The invertebrate fossils were unearthed in the uppermost part of the sedimentary section consisting of shallow water coastal and reef limestones, and calcareous mudstones. Investigations in the Sinop-Boyabat have provided detailed rock descriptions, but additional clues gleaned from the invertebrate identifications will help determine a more temporally restricted age. The fossils must be identified to the generic level and, ideally, to the species level as well. Identification occurred in four stages. First, I separated each fossil in to the taxonomic classes, Bivalvia and Gastropoda. Then I separated them based on shell characteristics and markings such as whorl length, aperture shape and size, and the presence or absence of axial ridges, sutures, or an apex. Next, I took photos of the most intact specimens. The final step has been reading through the literature and attempting to find a fossil description that matches each group. This is the most challenging stage as we cannot find publications that describe any of our specimens. Thus, we are using texts focusing on European and East Asian fossil faunas, none of which include matching identifications. Throughout the search for applicable literature, it became clear that the Sinop-Boyabat invertebrate specimens have not been studied before and many are new species.

Study of the thermodynamic properties of pure water and aqueous salt solutions of NaCl and Na2SO4 were undertaken to determine the equations of state for ices VI and VII at pressures from 1 to 4 GPa and temperatures from room temperature to approximately 300 ℃. The analysis was performed on data along the melting curves of pure water and aqueous solutions of up to 4 mol/kg of Na2SO4 and NaCl as measured within the pressure chamber of a Diamond Anvil Cell (DAC) utilizing ruby fluorescence spectra as a pressure gauge. The data were fit using a local basis function representation, allowing the comparison of the melting surfaces for the two salt solutions over a range of concentrations. Equations estimating evolution of the liquid-ice VI-ice VII triple point with increasing salt concentration, and prediction of the eutectic were enabled from the fit, providing better constraints on structural and geodynamic modelling of icy worlds. Melting point depression with increasing concentration of salt and incorporation of the salt ions into the crystal lattice, and density inversion between the high-pressure ices and saline solutions suggest the possibility of deep oceans of alternating layers of water and ice. Quantification of the effects of aqueous salts on these ices will allow the development of realistic modelling of the hydrosphere of icy worlds and exoplanets. Such modelling can be used to test the possible existence of chemical composition and water/rock dynamics favorable to the existence of habitable zones in these extreme environments.

Accurate thermodynamic properties of aqueous solutions are typically described using arbitrary and custom combinations of global basis functions (GBFs) that are designed to fit specific data sets. This approach is revision-intolerant, since each set of GBFs is fixed to a particular data set, and an entirely new set of basis functions may be required when data sets are expanded. Reusable thermodynamic representations that can accommodate new data for an ever-widening range of conditions can be achieved using multivariate tensor B-splines, a series of smoothly-connecting local basis functions (LBFs) that each represents an arbitrarily narrow regime. However, the current implementation of LBFs for thermodynamic representations requires proprietary software, and widespread acceptance of this new paradigm may be contingent on the availability of easy-to-use, platform-agnostic tools that simplify the dissemination and utilization of such information. I am developing Jupyter notebooks that accept previously developed LBF-based equations of state covering a defined range of pressures, temperatures, and concentrations, and, within the specified regime, return graphical or numerical representations of thermodynamic properties including Gibbs energy and its derivatives including density, specific heat, isothermal and adiabatic bulk moduli, thermal expansivity, and chemical potential. These tools will eventually accommodate both those seeking a simple prediction of state variables and those who seek to expand, reproduce, or refine an existing LBF equation of state. Use by the latter group has the potential to strengthen a model over time by providing straightforward and open-source opportunities for collaborative evolution of thermodynamic representations, whereas the conventional methodology requires highly specialized skills that inhibit such improvement.

Speed of sound measurements in four geologically important aqueous solutions (sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, magnesium chloride, and magnesium sulfate) as a function of pressure (0.1 to 700 MPa), temperature (250 K to 360 K), and concentration allow determination of Gibbs Energy. Sound speeds, based on ultrasonic time-of-flight measurements in a temperature-controlled pressure vessel, are integrated as a function of pressure to get densities and heat capacities. Both of these are derivatives of Gibbs Energy, which can be used to find all thermodynamic properties of the solution at a given pressure and temperature. Aside from spending vast amounts of time in-lab to acquire ultrasonic data, my data processing programs have been helpful in assuring our data precision and accuracy throughout the research process. Since icy (ocean) worlds in our solar system (including Europa, Titan, and Enceladus) are believed to contain liquid water within the current range of measurements, this work is useful in constructing geochemical models for planetary evolution and guides astrobiology questions of whether habitable environments exist on these planets.

On top of being iconic symbols of climate change, glaciers integrate year-to-year precipitation and temperature variability, which can mask their response to a climatic trend. For this reason, it is vital to identify the variability in their records to better detect regional climate change. With time-varying sea-level pressure (SLP) and sea-surface temperature (SST) fields, we examine the influence of natural climate variability on 14 glaciers in the North Atlantic region by using a statistical method called dynamical adjustment. The SLP and SST fields each explain 50-60% of variance in the winter mass-balances and 30-40% in the summer mass-balances of the maritime glaciers. The continental glaciers are less closely linked to oceanic variability, with SST explaining roughly 30% of variance in winter and summer mass-balances. The glaciers located further south fluctuate with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the winter, while glaciers near the Arctic show influence from the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) in the winter. To investigate how this variability affects glacier trends, adjusted mass-balances are compared to observational mass-balances with no signs of variability forcing trends. The observed and adjusted summer mass-balance trends of the southern glaciers are significantly negative, while the observed and adjusted winter mass-balances of the northern glaciers are significantly negative. This indicates that winter trends are more likely to emerge in glaciers near the Arctic, while summer trends are more likely to emerge in glaciers further south which is consistent with surface temperature time of emergence for global warming.

 Fault zones are dynamic structural regions in the Earth’s crust that can constrain fluid flow in the subsurface. The presence of fluids in fault zones changes local stresses and can result in coevolving relationships between fluid migration and faulting. Because of this complex behavior, fault zone architecture is difficult to define, but two broad regions of deformation can be differentiated by material differences to describe permeability and other fluid-rock relationships. The fault core is the narrow, highly pulverized, often impermeable area of the fault closest to the slip surface. The damage zone is the wider, fractured, outer region of the fault which can allow fluid flow through fault-related cracks in the host rock. Although these these definitions describe general fluid-rock properties across fault zones, they do not fully capture the complex nature of fluid migration and compartmentalization in faults. Because fluids are difficult to observe in the Earth, mineral precipitates can be used as geochemical tracers for fluids. We analyzed carbonate precipitates in fault rocks from the fault cores and damage zones of three normal faults in Central Italy to characterize the fluids present in the area and the structural influences of fault architecture on fluid compartmentalization. Preliminary ¹⁸O and ¹³C standard stable isotope analysis aided initial fluid characterization and informed carbonate powder sampling for D47 clumped isotope analysis, which allowed us to reconstruct fluid temperatures and compositions. We present a spatial analysis of fluid compositions relative to structural units within the three fault zones.

Understanding the permeability structure of sedimentary rocks is important for predicting migration of fluids like water, hydrocarbons, contaminants or CO₂ in the subsurface. Movement of pressurized pore fluid can cause coarse sediments to be injected into fine-grained, low-permeability sedimentary layers, forming “clastic pipes.” Clastic pipes are important because they create pathways that enable fluid to migrate through the cross-cut impermeable layers. We studied the clastic pipes in the Jurassic Carmel Formation, Utah, to understand their formation conditions and timing, and their relationship with hydrocarbon migration in the region. Specifically, we used petrography including cathodoluminescence observations of calcite cements that grew from the migrating fluids to understand whether fluid migration through the pipes occurred in multiple generations or in one single event. Preliminary results of the cathodoluminescence observations show multiple generations of cementation and fluid migration. Some samples exhibit non-luminescent cements, which are typical of near-surface fluids and may represent syn-depositional fluid flow during initial pipe injection and formation. Other samples showed multiple generations of luminescent cements, which are typical of basin fluids. This included (1) large dull orange calcite crystals, with (2) bright yellow luminescent cement deposited along cleavage planes that are cross-cut by brittle fractures. Some of the large grains in these samples were partially coated with (3) dull orange-yellow luminescent cement with blotchy texture that cross cuts calcite generations 1 and 2. Further work in this study will be to use clumped, C and O isotopes to constrain the temperature and source of the different generations of fluids from which the cements grew. The obtained fluid temperatures will then be related to the burial history (temperature-time) curve for the region to understand the timing of fluid flow through the pipes and its relationship with hydrocarbon migration in the region.

This project aims to ground truth a statistical model created previously by our lab. The model predicts the characteristics of a hyper velocity impact of a projectile into both sea ice and water ice. We compared the modeling program’s simulated results with observed results from both 1.5 inch and 4 inch ice perpetrators on lab created water ice and naturally forming sea ice respectively and studying such characteristics such as peak ejection angle, maximum crater depth, and crater diameter. The experimental results are compared with the simulation presented by Koch 2017. We will apply both our experimental data and our simulation data in the design and creation of a two-stage penetration probe. The first stage is a hyper-velocity penetrator. The second stage is an aero-breaking probe that will use the plume created by the first stage to reduce its velocity before impacting the surface.

Global temperatures have been on the rise since preindustrial times due to an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. Learning about how past climates have responded to changes in carbon dioxide concentrations is important to understand how our current climate will respond to atmospheric changes. Previous studies have tried to constrain the warming that occurred after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ~20,000 years ago), for example in the Central Rocky Mountains, USA, where glacial modeling-based estimates suggest temperature change from the LGM to the modern (interglacial) climate was 5-10 °C. However, these glacier-based temperature estimates were influenced by other factors such as precipitation and seasonality, giving them large uncertainties. This study will use carbonate samples from soils from the LGM and modern interglacial (<3,000 years before present) to develop a more precise estimate of the amount of warming since the LGM. We will measure the clumped oxygen and carbon isotopes of samples collected from the Central Rocky Mountains and arid Western United States. The clumped isotopes measure soil temperature directly, providing a robust proxy for temperature change. This study will also investigate the time of year soil carbonates form, which is important for interpreting the soil temperature recorded by clumped isotopes. Through the use of clumped isotopes we will improve temperature change estimates, which will help improve climate models for the future.

Drumlin formation in the Puget Lowland occurs at varying scales ranging from tens of meters to a few kilometers both in length and width. There is no unifying theory to explain drumlin formation, but Boulton (1987) contends that drumlin features comprised of stratified sediment overlain by till, such as those observed in the Puget Lowland, are formed by differential erosion and deposition of a heterogenous, deformable bed. According to Boulton’s model, deformable sediment under high ice-pressure, coupled with high pore water pressure, flows around cores of less-deformable sediment. As pressure around the obstruction (i.e. less deformable sediment) increases from the converging ice, the ice starts to erode and deform. Deposition occurs where pore water can drain from the bed, such as into permeable outwash. Till would then accrete incrementally, increasing the drumlins height and length over its development history. Drumlinoid features bisected by wave erosion and channel incision on Whidbey Island provide an excellent opportunity to empirically quantify the thickness of till deposition in relation to position on the drumlin, as well as the underlying sedimentological properties of the substrate units underlying the till. Numerous well logs recorded on drumlinoid features complement the field measurements. A detailed assessment of the drumlin’s substrate geology, specifically the thickness of the overlying till will provide important quantitative data relevant to assessing the validity of Boulton’s model to explain the formation of larger-scale drumlinoid features in the Puget Lowland.

Hosted through the Earth and Space Sciences department, HuskySat-1 is a 3U (30cm x 10cm x 10cm) satellite manifested for launch into low earth orbit in late 2018 or early 2019. HuskySat-1 is primarily an undergraduate research effort, but includes graduate students and industry partnerships. It spans many departments including Earth and Space Sciences, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Physics, Mathematics, and many others. The mission goals are to establish a space presence for the University of Washington, and to test novel hardware fabricated here at the University of Washington. Of particular interest are the Pulsed Plasma Thruster (PPT), a plasma propulsion device designed and fabricated entirely at the University of Washington in the Advanced Propulsion Labratory, and the K-band communication system, a high-frequency, high-gain antenna capable of transmitting data at megabits per second from orbit to Earth. The satellite also includes several other subsystems including power, attitude control, structures, computers and data handling, and low-gain communication. The mission strives to provide experience in real-life engineering to the entire team, and we achieve this by attempting to build as much of each of these subsystems from scratch as possible. Not only does this provide the most possible experience, but we are also able to grow our mission scope and customize our requirements without the excessive budget attached with many pre-made satellite components. We plan to present on the current and planned state of the mission, what we have learned in the process of designing and building this mission, and our next plans for further space exploration at the University of Washington.